Introduction

In their quest to conquer the world, the Mongols have left an impression of wondrous terror upon the continents of Europe and Asia. Following the command of their ambitious leader, Ghengis Khan (1162-1227), the Mongols have successfully brought all nations from the Far East to Eastern Europe under their sovereignty (Rossabi 4). Among these nations, the Ching Empire was perhaps one of their greatest conquests. Under the rule of Khubilai Khan, the Mongols founded a dynasty of their own: the Yuan Dynasty (1260-1370). This entry will be an examination of the effects of the Mongol rule upon the Chinese Empire during the reign of Khubilai.

Khubilai Khan

Khubilai was born on September 23, 1215, which happens to be the year when his grandfather Ghengis Khan seized Beijing (Lane 119). He was trained in skills essential for all Mongols, such as combat, archery, horseback riding, and hunting. Yet, because he was a noble, he would have been exposed to the foreigners who came and went from the camps (Lane 119). Of these foreign cultures, Khubilai frequently came in contact with the Chinese. Khubilai had always been familiar with Chinese traditions and culture. His mother, the famous Sorghaghtani Beki, played an important role in this matter (Lane 49). She oversaw a territory that consisted of mainly Chinese inhabitants (Rossabi 14). Under her guidance, Khubilai was educated in religious tolerance, indigenous economy, and literacy (Lane 50). Khubilai kept several Chinese advisors close to him since he was a young nobleman (Rossabi 15). Later, he became even more closely connected with China when his brother, Mongke Khan, awarded several Chinese lands to him (Rossabi 23). The Northern State or Chin Empire was finally defeated in 1234 under Ogodei Khan’s reign. Then, when Mongke became Great Khan in 1251, he appointed his brother Khubilai to be viceroy of China (Lane 49). Thus began Khubilai’s influence on Chinese culture.

The Yuan Dynasty (1260-1370)

Khubilai established a new capital for his kingdom at what is now Beijing. It was called Ta-tu (Lane 50). On January 18, 1272, Khubilai, the new Mongol Khan and Emperor of China, issued an edict:

We have nobly accepted the splendid mandate covering the entire world and giving a place of abode to the exalted ruler…The origin of [the practice of giving titles to dynasties] is found in antiquity, and is not something only our house has done…Our Great Progenitor, the Sagelike Martial Emperor [Chinggis Khan], grasped the sign of the Creative and arose in the northern land. With a spirit-like martiality he accepted the imperial design. Majestically, he stirred the heavenly sound; he greatly expanded the territory of the realm to a breadth never before equalled. Presently the venerable worthies have come to the court to present memorials conveying their requests, saying that since the grand enterprise has already been completed it is appropriate to promulgate a magnificent title. According to the ancient institutions, that is so, and it is no different in Our Mind. Ta Yuan [Great Yuan] shall be the title of the dynasty…May the dynasty abide in prosperity forever so as not to be unworthy of the difficult efforts [of the founder].” (Langlois 4)

This formal and eloquent statement reflects the way in which Khubilai adopted his new role as the Emperor of China. His proclamation was made in traditional Chinese fashion, modelled after past emperors (Langlois 5). The name of his dynasty, Yuan, meant “the origin” – signifying both a completely original regime by a Mongol and a continuation of China’s line of emperors. This approach legitimized his rule by reassuring the Chinese that he was no barbarian and was familiar with the Chinese way. As such, he sought to make a smooth transition from nomad warrior to metropolitan king. Nevertheless, Khubilai did not forget his Mongol roots. He was aware of his position as both Great Khan to the Mongols and Emperor to China. To emphasize his power over this vast kingdom, he actively promoted the symbol of the Chinese throne and incorporated it with Mongol identity to give it a universal importance (Langlois 6). This is an important fact that will change the idea of a Chinese Empire.

Being the first Mongol Emperor of China, Khubilai brought many changes to China. With the conquest of the Southern Sung state in 1267 , he brought together the Northern and Southern states into a unified China (Morgan 119). The construction of the Grand Canal permanently linked the two states by water, and it served as the main route for commerce throughout China (Rossabi 121). This was a great accomplishment that has endured even into modern times.

Religion

Khubilai tolerated all forms of religion during his reign. He favoured Tibetan Buddhism and Nestorian Christianity over Chinese Ch’an Buddhism and Chinese Confucianism. Nevertheless, he decided to openly support Buddhism instead of Christianity in order to appeal to the Chinese people (Saunders 126). Tibetan Buddhism appealed to Khubilai because of its involvement in politics unlike Ch’an Buddhism (Rossabi 143). Aside from the banning of Taoist literature and Muslim propaganda, there were relatively few limits set upon religions (Saunders 127). This tolerance proved to be an invaluable asset to the ruling of his religiously diverse kingdom.

Social Classes

Khubilai divided the population into four main groups:

1) The Mongols

2) Western and Central Asians

3) Northern Chinese

4) Southern Chinese

The Chinese groups were excluded from many important civilian positions. Although Chinese advisors may be more influential than other officials, their official statuses were often vague and undefined (Rossabi 71).

There were several reasons for these low rankings of the Chinese. The Southern Chinese were classified as the lowest rank because they were the least trustworthy group and the last to be conquered (Rossabi 71). There were several rebellions attempted by the Chinese (Endicott-West, 111). Of these rebellions, it was the rebellion of 1262 in Shantung that had the most effect on Khubilai’s view of his Chinese subjects. The rebellion was led by a man name Li T’an, who Khubilai appointed to be Military Commissioner of the Chiang-Huai region (Rossabi 63). With his military power, Li massacred Mongol soldiers in the area and handed over large areas of land to the Sung. Eventually, Khubilai succeeded in quelling the rebellion, and Li was executed by Mongol custom: trampling to death by horses (Rossabi 65).

This rebellion uncovered the treachery of another Chinese official, Wang Wen-Tung, and further deepened Khubilai’s mistrust of the Chinese. Khubilai had recruited this Confucian advisor even before he became the Great Khan. Wang enjoyed a prestigious position as the Chief Administrator in the Secretariat. Eventually, Wang became one of Khubilai’s most important advisors, and he often relied on Wang in important official matters. However, suspicions of Wang’s involvement with Li T’an were confirmed when letters between the two were found. Wang was arrested and executed, along with Wang’s son who acted as messenger between Li and Wang (Rossabi 65). Although Khubilai kept Chinese advisors in his court, he would never again fully rely on them. The abolishment of traditional Chinese civil service examinations also served to restrict the Chinese from prestigious government positions (Rossabi 161). This meant that Khubilai must look for assistance elsewhere.

The Economy

Throughout his reign, Khubilai recruited numerous non-Chinese advisors to his court to reduce Chinese influence. He was very interested in science and invited many foreign scientists to China. Persian astronomers created a new calendar for Khubilai, known as the Wanien li or "Calendar for Ten Thousand Years" (Rossabi 125). Similarly, the Muslims were also highly valued for the geographic knowledge and mapmaking skills (Rossabi 126). Muslims from Central Asia and the Middle East were often employed as tax collectors and moneylenders (Langlois 259).

Foreign commerce also improved during this period. The status of merchants rose to prominence during Khubilai’s reign. Previously, the Chinese would impose many restrictions on merchant trades, and they were generally viewed in an unfavourable light. The Confucians condemned them as immoral, and often described merchants as crafty and avaricious (Rossabi 122). Khubilai did not hold the same viewpoints. Not only did he support the merchant trade in China, he also encouraged trade with foreign merchants. As a result, trade inside and outside of China prospered . Muslim merchants acted as intermediaries between China and the rest of Asia. Camel, horses, carpets, spices, and medicines were imported to China, and Chinese ceramics, silks, and other goods were exported (Rossabi 122). The business of exportation was so successful that a whole new niche was created. For example, many Chinese ceramics were designed especially for export. The popular blue-and-white porcelains were produced during this period when the Chinese gained access to the cobalt blue used for the glazes. Textile manufacturers also produced robes and other vestments specifically for European customers (Rossabi 170).

Chinese Platter, Porcelain painted with underglaze cobalt blue, mid-14th century CE, ARTstor Collection

Textile with Phoenixes and Dragons, lampas, silk and gold thread, 1279-1368, ARTstor Collection

The expansion of international trade and contact gave rise to a number of innovations in China. Khubilai began the use of paper currency within his domain to further promote trade between merchants (Rossabi 123). He also developed more roads throughout the countryside and established postal stations along the way (Rossabi 124). Doctors also became a respectable profession as the Mongols valued the practical uses of medicine. Skilled doctors were recruited from many regions of Khubilai’s kingdom, including South India, Central Asia, and Persia (Rossabi 125). With the establishment of an Imperial Academy of Medicine, indigenous Chinese were also attracted to this profession. Thus many professions that were previously slighted by the Chinese benefited under Khubilai’s rule.

Due to his Mongol background, Khubilai was aware of the military value of horses (Rossabi 129). As a result, the Court of the Imperial Stud was put in place, and he actively obtained horses. Not only were they important in warfare, they were also crucial to the newly established postal stations (Rossabi 129). Chinese families were not allowed to own or purchase horses, and merchants were forbidden to sell them to Khubilai’s enemies. Similarly, bamboo was limited to Khubilai’s government. They can be used to make bows and arrows and were thus prohibited to the Chinese to avoid underground plans of rebellion (Rossabi 128).

An entirely new legal system was implemented when Khubilai ruled. These new legal codes included previous Chinese laws, but they were greatly influenced by Mongol customs. For example, criminals were allowed to pay a fine to the government in order to avoid physical punishment. This was an important change that became part of the Chinese system of justice even after the Yuan dynasty (Rossabi 130). In addition, executions were fewer compared to the Chinese rule. All in all, the legal system was more lenient under Khubilai in comparison to the Chinese.

Arts and Culture

Although he was a Mongol, Khubilai was a great patron of the arts. He directly and indirectly influenced much of the art produced during the Yuan dynasty. Yuan theatre was regarded in history as the crème de la crème of Chinese theatre (Rossabi 161). Numerous types of genres were performed including tragedies, comedies, and the most popular “courtroom plays”. Because of the abolishment of civil service examinations, the playwrights were not longer restricted to one style of writing, but were allowed to explore new subject matter (Rossabi 161). They were also allowed to write the plays in the vernacular language as opposed to the rigid structures of previous generations (Rossabi 163). This pattern was also observed in the writing of novels. Khubilai’s implementation of the printing press caused a growth in printed books and was a major influence in the rise of literacy in later Chinese dynasties (Rossabi 163).

Training the Horse, Zhao, Mengfu, 1254-1322

Painting was favoured by Khubilai’s court, since it was the most accessible and did not require familiarity with the Chinese language (Rossabi 164). Several examples of Yuan dynasty painting can be found here: http://arts.cultural-china.com/en/62Arts220.html. He sponsored numerous painters and was a great collector of paintings. He patronized some of the greatest painters in Chinese history such as Chao Meng-fu (1254-1322) (Rossabi 166). The famous Yuan calligrapher Hsien-yu Shu (1257-1302) was also patronized by Khubilai. Some examples of his work are found here: http://www.lunacommons.org/luna/servlet/view/all/who/Xian+Yu-shu. There was a marked departure from the formal Sung Academy style, and new themes and subjects appeared in Yuan paintings. For example, depictions of horses were very popular, which was possibly a method of appealing to the Mongol taste (Rossabi 168). Prior to the Yuan, painters were valued for their skillful depictions of beautiful objects. This profession was regarded as unsuitable for the literati (Cahill 5). However, in the Yuan dynasty, there was a move towards so-called “expressive painting”. The artist’s personality or thoughts were expressed through his style of painting (Cahill 6). As mentioned before, numerous Chinese intellectuals were restricted from governmental positions. Thus many had withdrawn to a reclusive way of life and expressed their discontentment through paintings.


Orchids "Lan hua", Cheng Ssu-Hsiao, 13th century CE., ARTstor Collection

For example, the famous painter Cheng Ssu-Hsiao painted the Chinese orchid as a symbol of national pride and suffering. The orchid was associated with virtuous gentlemen, and blooms modestly from hidden places. This was an appropriate image for a reclusive intellectual such as Cheng himself. By depicting the flower without earth around its roots, he replied that “the earth had been stolen by the Barbarians” (Cahill 17).

Conclusion

As the first Mongol ruler of China, Khubilai Khan brought much change to the nation. He restricted the Chinese from political power, and in turn invited numerous foreigners to aid in administration. With the influx of foreigners and the new status of merchants, trade flourished both inside and outside of the country. Numerous professions came to be valued, which led to new innovations in each field. Arts and literature were also effected by the chain-effect of these changes. Although Khubilai's eventual decline into wine and food caused him to neglect his political duties, his reign made a lasting impact on the Chinese Empire. Khubilai’s capital city, Ta-tu, remains the capital city of China today: Beijing.

Note: A 6 part Japanese documentary named "The Empire of Khubilai Khan" can be found on YouTube. It contains more information on Khubilai's reign. Here are the links to the documentary:

Part 1) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GMX0xNAMSQM
Part 2) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zu0Ai7krOFs&feature=related
Part 3) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ggzI_BPnd6w&feature=related
Part 4) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0icbj0GSqKQ&feature=related
Part 5) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhTWm9eQVNc&feature=related
Part 6) http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pjYDg5mdW_o&feature=related
Enjoy!

Bibliography

Cahill, James. Hills Beyond a River: Chinese Painting of the Yuan Dynasty, 1279-1368.

New York: John Weatherhill Inc., 1976.

Endicott-West, Elizabeth. Mongolian Rule in China. Cambrdige: Harvard University Press,

1989.

Lane, George. Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule. Westport: Greenwood Press, 2004.

Langois, John D. China Under Mongol Rule. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981.

Morgan, David. The Mongols. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1986.

Russabi, Morris. Khubilai Khan. Berkely: University of California Press, 1988.

Saunders, J.J. The History of the Mongol Conquests. London: Routeledge & Kegan Paul Ltd.,

1971.